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Point spread function

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The point spread function (PSF) describes the response of a focused optical imaging system to a <a href="Point_source" title="Point source">point source</a> or point object. A more general term for the PSF is the system's <a href="Impulse_response" title="Impulse response">impulse response</a>; the PSF is the impulse response or impulse response function (IRF) of a focused optical imaging system.

The PSF in many contexts can be thought of as the shapeless blob in an image that should represent a single point object.

We can consider this as a spatial <a href="Impulse_response_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Impulse response function">impulse response function</a>.

In functional terms, it is the spatial domain version (i.e., the inverse Fourier transform) of the <a href="Optical_transfer_function" title="Optical transfer function">optical transfer function (OTF) of an imaging system</a>. It is a useful concept in <a href="Fourier_optics" title="Fourier optics">Fourier optics</a>, <a href="Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomical imaging</a>, <a href="Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a>, <a href="Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscopy</a> and other imaging techniques such as <a href="Dimension" title="Dimension">3D</a> <a href="Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopy</a> (like in <a href="Confocal_laser_scanning_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Confocal laser scanning microscopy">confocal laser scanning microscopy</a>) and <a href="Fluorescence_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescence microscopy">fluorescence microscopy</a>.

The degree of spreading (blurring) in the image of a point object for an imaging system is a measure of the quality of the imaging system. In <a href="Non-coherent_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-coherent imaging">non-coherent imaging</a> systems, such as <a href="Fluorescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent">fluorescent</a> <a href="Microscopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopes">microscopes</a>, <a href="Telescopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Telescopes">telescopes</a> or optical microscopes, the image formation process is linear in the image intensity and described by a <a href="Linear_system" title="Linear system">linear system</a> theory. This means that when two objects A and B are imaged simultaneously by a non-coherent imaging system, the resulting image is equal to the sum of the independently imaged objects. In other words: the imaging of A is unaffected by the imaging of B and vice versa, owing to the non-interacting property of photons. In space-invariant systems, i.e. those in which the PSF is the same everywhere in the imaging space, the image of a complex object is then the <a href="Convolution" title="Convolution">convolution</a> of that object and the PSF. The PSF can be derived from diffraction integrals.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2></div>

By virtue of the linearity property of optical non-coherent imaging systems, i.e.,

<dl><dd>Image(Object1 + Object2) = Image(Object1) + Image(Object2)</dd></dl>

the image of an object in a microscope or telescope as a non-coherent imaging system can be computed by expressing the object-plane field as a weighted sum of 2D impulse functions, and then expressing the image plane field as a weighted sum of the images of these impulse functions. This is known as the superposition principle, valid for <a href="Linear_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear systems">linear systems</a>. The images of the individual object-plane impulse functions are called point spread functions (PSF), reflecting the fact that a mathematical point of light in the object plane is spread out to form a finite area in the image plane. (In some branches of mathematics and physics, these might be referred to as <a href="Green's_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Green's functions">Green's functions</a> or <a href="Impulse_response" title="Impulse response">impulse response</a> functions. PSFs are considered impulse response functions for imaging systems.

When the object is divided into discrete point objects of varying intensity, the image is computed as a sum of the PSF of each point. As the PSF is typically determined entirely by the imaging system (that is, microscope or telescope), the entire image can be described by knowing the optical properties of the system. This imaging process is usually formulated by a <a href="Convolution" title="Convolution">convolution</a> equation. In <a href="Microscope_image_processing" title="Microscope image processing">microscope image processing</a> and <a href="Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, knowing the PSF of the measuring device is very important for restoring the (original) object with <a href="Deconvolution" title="Deconvolution">deconvolution</a>. For the case of laser beams, the PSF can be mathematically modeled using the concepts of <a href="Gaussian_beam" title="Gaussian beam">Gaussian beams</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kiarash2-3">[3]</a> For instance, deconvolution of the mathematically modeled PSF and the image, improves visibility of features and removes imaging noise.<a href="#cite_note-Kiarash1-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2></div>

The point spread function may be independent of position in the object plane, in which case it is called shift invariant. In addition, if there is no distortion in the system, the image plane coordinates are linearly related to the object plane coordinates via the <a href="Magnification" title="Magnification">magnification</a> M as:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (x_{i},y_{i})=(Mx_{o},My_{o})}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./6bea078fd2b8b7cbb8c11963ea5d570ac0265b2c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.266ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (x_{i},y_{i})=(Mx_{o},My_{o})}" loading="lazy">.</dd></dl>

If the imaging system produces an inverted image, we may simply regard the image plane coordinate axes as being reversed from the object plane axes. With these two assumptions, i.e., that the PSF is shift-invariant and that there is no distortion, calculating the image plane convolution integral is a straightforward process.

Mathematically, we may represent the object plane field as:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O(x_{o},y_{o})=\iint O(u,v)~\delta (x_{o}-u,y_{o}-v)~du\,dv}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./73463cd2d6b1c7c6dbeac5e8b8fab8388ebf79af.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:46.12ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O(x_{o},y_{o})=\iint O(u,v)~\delta (x_{o}-u,y_{o}-v)~du\,dv}" loading="lazy"></dd></dl>

i.e., as a sum over weighted impulse functions, although this is also really just stating the shifting property of 2D delta functions (discussed further below). Rewriting the object transmittance function in the form above allows us to calculate the image plane field as the superposition of the images of each of the individual impulse functions, i.e., as a superposition over weighted point spread functions in the image plane using the same weighting function as in the object plane, i.e., <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle O(x_{o},y_{o})}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle O(x_{o},y_{o})}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./55513a5ec096c66cb932365eccdf6193c772f618.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.145ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle O(x_{o},y_{o})}" loading="lazy">. Mathematically, the image is expressed as:

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle I(x_{i},y_{i})=\iint O(u,v)~\mathrm {PSF} (x_{i}/M-u,y_{i}/M-v)\,du\,dv}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./cd5cb3cf239b76af6d2cfb2d98bde4c985fa8a77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:54.959ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle I(x_{i},y_{i})=\iint O(u,v)~\mathrm {PSF} (x_{i}/M-u,y_{i}/M-v)\,du\,dv}" loading="lazy"></dd></dl>

in which <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\textstyle {\mbox{PSF}}(x_{i}/M-u,y_{i}/M-v)}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\textstyle {\mbox{PSF}}(x_{i}/M-u,y_{i}/M-v)}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./a505e8691ac96768826bbb8a0bcedf71d3c6e882.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:26.652ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\textstyle {\mbox{PSF}}(x_{i}/M-u,y_{i}/M-v)}" loading="lazy"> is the image of the impulse function <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta (x_{o}-u,y_{o}-v)}">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta (x_{o}-u,y_{o}-v)}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./8b635c98db944a1c58d01895c97a15e7d516e002.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.558ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta (x_{o}-u,y_{o}-v)}" loading="lazy">.

The 2D impulse function may be regarded as the limit (as side dimension w tends to zero) of the "square post" function, shown in the figure below.

We imagine the object plane as being decomposed into square areas such as this, with each having its own associated square post function. If the height, h, of the post is maintained at 1/w2, then as the side dimension w tends to zero, the height, h, tends to infinity in such a way that the volume (integral) remains constant at 1. This gives the 2D impulse the sifting property (which is implied in the equation above), which says that when the 2D impulse function, δ(x − u,y − v), is integrated against any other <a href="Continuous_function" title="Continuous function">continuous function</a>, f(u,v), it "sifts out" the value of f at the location of the impulse, i.e., at the point (x,y).

The concept of a perfect point source object is central to the idea of PSF. However, there is no such thing in nature as a perfect mathematical point source radiator; the concept is completely non-physical and is rather a mathematical construct used to model and understand optical imaging systems. The utility of the point source concept comes from the fact that a point source in the 2D object plane can only radiate a perfect uniform-amplitude, spherical wave — a wave having perfectly spherical, outward travelling phase fronts with uniform intensity everywhere on the spheres (see <a href="Huygens%E2%80%93Fresnel_principle" title="Huygens–Fresnel principle">Huygens–Fresnel principle</a>). Such a source of uniform spherical waves is shown in the figure below. We also note that a perfect point source radiator will not only radiate a uniform spectrum of propagating plane waves, but a uniform spectrum of exponentially decaying (<a href="Evanescent_wave" class="mw-redirect" title="Evanescent wave">evanescent</a>) waves as well, and it is these which are responsible for resolution finer than one wavelength (see <a href="Fourier_optics" title="Fourier optics">Fourier optics</a>). This follows from the following <a href="Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a> expression for a 2D impulse function,

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta (x,y)\propto \iint e^{j(k_{x}x+k_{y}y)}\,dk_{x}\,dk_{y}}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./453a11ce8940334fde1a985aacec96211dbf6c90.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:30.909ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta (x,y)\propto \iint e^{j(k_{x}x+k_{y}y)}\,dk_{x}\,dk_{y}}" loading="lazy"></dd></dl>

The quadratic <a href="Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a> intercepts a portion of this spherical wave, and refocuses it onto a blurred point in the image plane. For a single <a href="Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lens</a>, an on-axis point source in the object plane produces an <a href="Airy_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Airy disc">Airy disc</a> PSF in the image plane. It can be shown (see <a href="Fourier_optics" title="Fourier optics">Fourier optics</a>, <a href="Huygens%E2%80%93Fresnel_principle" title="Huygens–Fresnel principle">Huygens–Fresnel principle</a>, <a href="Fraunhofer_diffraction" title="Fraunhofer diffraction">Fraunhofer diffraction</a>) that the field radiated by a planar object (or, by reciprocity, the field converging onto a planar image) is related to its corresponding source (or image) plane distribution via a <a href="Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a> (FT) relation. In addition, a uniform function over a circular area (in one FT domain) corresponds to J1(x)/x in the other FT domain, where J1(x) is the first-order <a href="Bessel_function" title="Bessel function">Bessel function</a> of the first kind. That is, a uniformly-illuminated circular aperture that passes a converging uniform spherical wave yields an <a href="Airy_disk" title="Airy disk">Airy disk</a> image at the focal plane. A graph of a sample <a href="Airy_disk" title="Airy disk">Airy disk</a> is shown in the adjoining figure.

Therefore, the converging (partial) spherical wave shown in the figure above produces an <a href="Airy_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Airy disc">Airy disc</a> in the image plane. The argument of the function J1(x)/x is important, because this determines the scaling of the Airy disc (in other words, how big the disc is in the image plane). If Θmax is the maximum angle that the converging waves make with the lens axis, r is radial distance in the image plane, and <a href="Wavenumber" title="Wavenumber">wavenumber</a> k = 2π/λ where λ = wavelength, then the argument of the function is: kr tan(Θmax). If Θmax is small (only a small portion of the converging spherical wave is available to form the image), then radial distance, r, has to be very large before the total argument of the function moves away from the central spot. In other words, if Θmax is small, the Airy disc is large (which is just another statement of Heisenberg's <a href="Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">uncertainty principle</a> for Fourier Transform pairs, namely that small extent in one domain corresponds to wide extent in the other domain, and the two are related via the <a href="Space-bandwidth_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Space-bandwidth product">space-bandwidth product</a>). By virtue of this, high <a href="Magnification" title="Magnification">magnification</a> systems, which typically have small values of Θmax (by the <a href="Abbe_sine_condition" title="Abbe sine condition">Abbe sine condition</a>), can have more blur in the image, owing to the broader PSF. The size of the PSF is proportional to the <a href="Magnification" title="Magnification">magnification</a>, so that the blur is no worse in a relative sense, but it is definitely worse in an absolute sense.

The figure above illustrates the truncation of the incident spherical wave by the lens. In order to measure the point spread function — or impulse response function — of the lens, a perfect point source that radiates a perfect spherical wave in all directions of space is not needed. This is because the lens has only a finite (angular) bandwidth, or finite intercept angle. Therefore, any angular bandwidth contained in the source, which extends past the edge angle of the lens (i.e., lies outside the bandwidth of the system), is essentially wasted source bandwidth because the lens can't intercept it in order to process it. As a result, a perfect point source is not required in order to measure a perfect point spread function. All we need is a light source which has at least as much angular bandwidth as the lens being tested (and of course, is uniform over that angular sector). In other words, we only require a point source which is produced by a convergent (uniform) spherical wave whose half angle is greater than the edge angle of the lens.

Due to intrinsic limited resolution of the imaging systems, measured PSFs are not free of uncertainty.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> In imaging, it is desired to suppress the side-lobes of the imaging beam by <a href="Apodization" title="Apodization">apodization</a> techniques. In the case of transmission imaging systems with Gaussian beam distribution, the PSF is modeled by the following equation:<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mathrm {PSF} (f,z)=I_{r}(0,z,f)\exp \left[-z\alpha (f)-{\dfrac {2\rho ^{2}}{0.36{\frac {cka}{{\text{NA}}f}}{\sqrt {{1+\left({\frac {2\ln 2}{c\pi }}\left({\frac {\text{NA}}{0.56k}}\right)^{2}fz\right)}^{2}}}}}\right],}</annotation>

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</math><img src="./9a99718e5f38c64ae7d567b6d9f0bd40d3781f92.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -7.338ex; width:75.52ex; height:15.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mathrm {PSF} (f,z)=I_{r}(0,z,f)\exp \left[-z\alpha (f)-{\dfrac {2\rho ^{2}}{0.36{\frac {cka}{{\text{NA}}f}}{\sqrt {{1+\left({\frac {2\ln 2}{c\pi }}\left({\frac {\text{NA}}{0.56k}}\right)^{2}fz\right)}^{2}}}}}\right],}" loading="lazy"></dd></dl>

where k-factor depends on the truncation ratio and level of the <a href="Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a>, NA is numerical aperture, c is the <a href="Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>, f is the photon frequency of the imaging beam, Ir is the intensity of reference beam, a is an adjustment factor and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \rho }">

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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \rho }</annotation>

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</math><img src="./1f7d439671d1289b6a816e6af7a304be40608d64.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.202ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \rho }" loading="lazy"> is the radial position from the center of the beam on the corresponding z-plane.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_methods">History and methods</h2></div>

The diffraction theory of point spread functions was first studied by <a href="George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">Airy</a> in the nineteenth century. He developed an expression for the point spread function amplitude and intensity of a perfect instrument, free of aberrations (the so-called <a href="Airy_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Airy disc">Airy disc</a>). The theory of aberrated point spread functions close to the optimum focal plane was studied by <a href="Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a> and Nijboer in the 1930–40s. A central role in their analysis is played by Zernike's <a href="Zernike_polynomials" title="Zernike polynomials">circle polynomials</a> that allow an efficient representation of the aberrations of any optical system with rotational symmetry. Recent analytic results have made it possible to extend Nijboer and Zernike's approach for point spread function evaluation to a large volume around the optimum focal point. This extended Nijboer-Zernike (ENZ) theory allows studying the imperfect imaging of three-dimensional objects in <a href="Confocal_microscopy" title="Confocal microscopy">confocal microscopy</a> or astronomy under non-ideal imaging conditions. The ENZ-theory has also been applied to the characterization of optical instruments with respect to their aberration by measuring the through-focus intensity distribution and solving an appropriate <a href="Inverse_problem" title="Inverse problem">inverse problem</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microscopy">Microscopy</h3></div>

In microscopy, experimental determination of PSF requires sub-resolution (point-like) radiating sources. <a href="Quantum_dot" title="Quantum dot">Quantum dots</a> and <a href="Fluorescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescent">fluorescent</a> <a href="Bead" title="Bead">beads</a> are usually considered for this purpose.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>

Theoretical models as described above, on the other hand, allow the detailed calculation of the PSF for various imaging conditions. The most compact <a href="Diffraction_limited" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffraction limited">diffraction limited</a> shape of the PSF is usually preferred. However, by using appropriate optical elements (e.g., a <a href="Spatial_light_modulator" title="Spatial light modulator">spatial light modulator</a>) the shape of the PSF can be engineered towards different applications.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h3></div>

In <a href="Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a>, the experimental determination of a PSF is often very straightforward due to the ample supply of point sources (<a href="Star" title="Star">stars</a> or <a href="Quasars" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasars">quasars</a>). The form and source of the PSF may vary widely depending on the instrument and the context in which it is used.

For <a href="Radio_telescopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio telescopes">radio telescopes</a> and <a href="Diffraction-limited_system" title="Diffraction-limited system">diffraction-limited</a> space <a href="Telescopes" class="mw-redirect" title="Telescopes">telescopes</a>, the dominant terms in the PSF may be inferred from the configuration of the aperture in the <a href="Fourier_domain" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourier domain">Fourier domain</a>. In practice, there may be multiple terms contributed by the various components in a complex optical system. A complete description of the PSF will also include diffusion of light (or photo-electrons) in the detector, as well as <a href="Spacecraft_attitude_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Spacecraft attitude control">tracking</a> errors in the spacecraft or telescope.

For ground-based optical telescopes, atmospheric turbulence (known as <a href="Astronomical_seeing" title="Astronomical seeing">astronomical seeing</a>) dominates the contribution to the PSF. In high-resolution ground-based imaging, the PSF is often found to vary with position in the image (an effect called anisoplanatism). In ground-based <a href="Adaptive_optics" title="Adaptive optics">adaptive optics</a> systems, the PSF is a combination of the aperture of the system with residual uncorrected atmospheric terms.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lithography">Lithography</h3></div>

The PSF is also a fundamental limit to the conventional focused imaging of a hole,<a href="#cite_note-nat_res-9">[9]</a> with the minimum printed size being in the range of 0.6-0.7 wavelength/NA, with NA being the <a href="Numerical_aperture" title="Numerical aperture">numerical aperture</a> of the imaging system.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> For example, in the case of an <a href="Extreme_ultraviolet_lithography" title="Extreme ultraviolet lithography">EUV</a> system with wavelength of 13.5 nm and NA=0.33, the minimum individual hole size that can be imaged is in the range of 25-29 nm. A <a href="Phase-shift_mask" title="Phase-shift mask">phase-shift mask</a> has 180-degree phase edges which allow finer resolution.<a href="#cite_note-nat_res-9">[9]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</h3></div>

Point spread functions have recently become a useful diagnostic tool in clinical <a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a>. Patients are measured with a <a href="Shack%E2%80%93Hartmann_wavefront_sensor" title="Shack–Hartmann wavefront sensor">Shack-Hartmann</a> <a href="Wavefront_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavefront sensor">wavefront sensor</a>, and special software calculates the PSF for that patient's eye. This method allows a physician to simulate potential treatments on a patient, and estimate how those treatments would alter the patient's PSF. Additionally, once measured the PSF can be minimized using an adaptive optics system. This, in conjunction with a <a href="Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a> camera and an adaptive optics system, can be used to visualize anatomical structures not otherwise visible in vivo, such as cone photoreceptors.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

<li><a href="Circle_of_confusion" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a>, for the closely related topic in general photography.</li>

<li><a href="Deconvolution" title="Deconvolution">Deconvolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Encircled_energy" title="Encircled energy">Encircled energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Impulse_response_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Impulse response function">Impulse response function</a></li>

<li><a href="Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscope</a></li>

<li><a href="Microsphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsphere">Microsphere</a></li>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAhi2017" class="citation journal cs1">Ahi, K. (November 2017). "Mathematical Modeling of THz Point Spread Function and Simulation of THz Imaging Systems". IEEE Transactions on Terahertz Science and Technology. 7 (6): 747–754. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ITTST...7..747A">2017ITTST...7..747A</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2Ftthz.2017.2750690">10.1109/tthz.2017.2750690</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2156-342X">2156-342X</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11781848">11781848</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Light transmitted through minute holes in a thin layer of silver vacuum or chemically deposited on a slide or cover-slip have also been used, as they are bright and do not photo-bleach.

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<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.telescope-optics.net/diffraction_image.htm">"POINT SPREAD FUNCTION (PSF)"</a>. www.telescope-optics.net. Retrieved 2017-12-30.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-nat_res-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nat_res_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nat_res_9-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lithoguru.com/scientist/litho_tutor/TUTOR23%20(Fall%2098).pdf">The Natural Resolution</a>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFRachel_NoekCaleb_KnoernschildJustin_MigaczTaehyun_Kim2010" class="citation journal cs1">Rachel Noek; Caleb Knoernschild; Justin Migacz; Taehyun Kim; Peter Maunz; True Merrill; Harley Hayden; C.S. Pai; Jungsang Kim (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quantum.gatech.edu/images/content/Noek_OpticsLetters2010.pdf">"Multi-scale Optics for Enhanced Light Collection from a Point Source"</a> (PDF). <a href="Optics_Letters" title="Optics Letters">Optics Letters</a>. 35 (June 2010): 2460–2. <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1006.2188">1006.2188</a>. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010OptL...35.2460N">2010OptL...35.2460N</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1364%2FOL.35.002460">10.1364/OL.35.002460</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10161%2F4222">10161/4222</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20634863">20634863</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6838852">6838852</a>.</cite></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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